Can the lost rituals of ancient temple theology be found in the Byzantine artwork of Ravenna?
In discussions about historical evidence for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saint's temple ceremonies, the Byzantine churches of Ravenna on Italy's east coast often come up for their striking and unique imagery. Professional and amateur researchers have argued that remnants of the ancient temple ceremonies, restored to us through modern prophets, can be found in Ravenna's magnificent mosaics.
I was interested in these claims, so I made a trip to Ravenna to try and document what I could find in this artwork. My journey revealed fascinating parallels between the art of Ravenna and the temple liturgy of the Restoration.
My goal here is to share those parallels.
These are the sites in Ravenna I visited:
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia
Basilica of San Vitale
Basilica of Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo
Neonian Baptistery
To be clear, my belief is not that the Byzantines understood and performed the temple rituals we now find in the restored Gospel. Rather, I think they inherited the symbols and imagery of those rites and used them in their own theological framework.
Images and art survive much longer in cultural conscience than language and drama. What we see here are echoes of a forgotten temple liturgy that will be familiar to Latter-day Saints who have performed those restored ceremonies.
My argument is that Ravenna holds whispers and echos of the ancient temple as it was known by Jesus Christ and His followers.
Context
First, it’s important to understand the temple liturgy as a drama, where rites are set within a narrative. It’s how our endowment is presented now, and it’s how the Greek mysterios (origin of the word "mystery") operated. In fact, these ritual dramas can be found across time and cultures. There seems to be something very fundamentally human about the practice.
In these ritual dramas, initiates are led through a narrative from the starting point of ignorance to a transcendant state of enlightenment. Along the way, the initiate is invited to participate in ritualistic acts, recitations, and performances.
In the endowment, sacred truths, oaths, and covenants are also presented within the narrative structure of Adam and Eve's experience. The presentation of that narrative structure can and does adapt to the context of the time and people, but the key narrative remains consistent so as to preserve the core doctrines and covenants.
So when we look at the artwork of Ravenna, we are searching for both the remnants of a similar narrative structure and unique temple symbology.
I. Marks in Robes and Clothing
Strange marks can be found on the robes of many of Ravenna's mosaic figures. These markings have some variety, but the vast majority appear as a right angle, reminiscent of a square.
Scholars have argued that these marks are the Greek symbol gammia (Γ). This argument is also supported by some figures bearing different Greek symbols (although it should be noted that in San Vitale, which was constructed first, all the symbols are Γ). Under this hypothesis, these symbols might be understood to represent the names of benefactors to the construction of the church.
While this might be true, it doesn't explain why the vast majority of the robes bear the Γ mark, nor does it explain the function of the marks in the robes.
Because the marks can be found in some figures and not others (not found on Jesus, Judas, and some Biblical figures, but found on angels and on the white robes of other figures, which we might understand to be participants in a temple liturgy), there appears to be a ritual significance to the marks. They are very prominent in these mosaics, and are unique to Ravenna.
Some of these marks are also found on veils and altar cloths in the mosaics. In the image below, the marks have spindles on the end, making them more reminiscent of a compass.
At the end of the day, neither we nor historians know the precise meaning and function of these marks. But for Latter-day Saints, these marks are strikingly familiar in a temple context.
If this is a coincidence, it is a remarkable one.
Again, my claim is not that the Byzantines knew temple symbols or their meanings, but rather that they understood that marks similar to the Greek symbols with which they were familiar could be found on the ritual clothing of early Christians saints.
II. Sacrifices Offered by Priestly Authority
One of the most prominent mosaics in the Basilica of San Vitale depicts Abel and Melchizedek on either side of an altar, offering a sacrifice to the Lord, whose hand is reaching down from a crimson sky. Abel is offering up a lamb. Melchezidek seems to be offering up bread and wine, as we read in the Old Testament.
Speaking from a temple perspective, I believe that we see two forms or degrees of priesthood on display.
In Abel we see a lesser priesthood; he is clothed in a garment of animal skins with a scarlet robe over his shoulder. There is no halo around his head. He is offering an animal sacrifice under the old law.
Contrast that image with Melchizedek, who is clothed in beautiful robes, with a sash around his waist and a crown on his head, which is illuminated in a golden halo. From my perspective, Melchizedek is clearly a higher priest. Behind him is a beautiful stone structure (a temple, maybe?), while behind Abel is a humble wooden hut.
It’s worth noting that symbols of priesthood are present throughout the scene. Sacramental symbols, including bread, wine, and a white altar cloth. Sacrifices. Temple markings. And even the so called seal of Melchizedek, an eight point star which features in many modern temples and is claimed by some to be the ancient mark of the Melchizedek Priesthood.
III. The Hand of the Lord
One image that is presented many times in Ravenna's mosaics is that of a hand appearing through the clouds. This hand is often seen at ceremonial altars or in Biblical depictions where the Lord interacted with His prophets.
For Latter-day Saints, the image of the Lord's hand reaching through should be familiar in a temple context. It is also reminiscent of the Brother of Jared's experience with the Lord in the Book of Mormon.
IV. Three Heavenly Messengers
The scene above depicts a story told in Genesis 18, when three visitors came to Abraham and Sarah. Abraham and Sarah showed hospitality to these messengers, who in return delivered their holy message that Abraham and Sarah would bear a son.
2 And he lift up his eyes and looked, and, lo, three men stood by him: and when he saw them, he ran to meet them from the tent door, and bowed himself toward the ground,
3 And said, My Lord, if now I have found favour in thy sight, pass not away, I pray thee, from thy servant:
4 Let a little water, I pray you, be fetched, and wash your feet, and rest yourselves under the tree:
5 And I will fetch a morsel of bread, and comfort ye your hearts; after that ye shall pass on: for therefore are ye come to your servant. And they said, So do, as thou hast said.
This is where we need to identify a narrative pattern. It's also where we need to ask why this specific scene is given such prominence in Ravenna's mosaics. I've been to many churches, but I have rarely scene this Bible story depicted artistically, and I've never seen it featured so prominently.
While some may see this connection as weak, I think we are looking at a narrative pattern that should be familiar to temple initiates: three heavenly messengers visit a patriarch and matriarch, who receive them with hospitality and in return obtain a message from God.
V. Baptism by Immersion
The depiction of Christ's baptism in the baptistery of Ravenna seems very standard in Christian art. It is not strange to find a baptistery next to a church of this size and period in Ravenna.
Of course, baptism is not a temple ordinance for Latter-day Saints. We perform baptisms for the living outside of temples. Within the temple, we perform baptisms for the dead and participate in a washing ordinance, both of which are closely linked to baptism.
I have to thank @Jason_Carmona_ on X for pointing out what now seems obvious. The discoloration around John's figure here suggests that the mosaic was altered at some point in time. That discoloration would match perfectly with a depiction of John baptizing Jesus with his right arm to the square and his other arm behind Jesus' back.
Everything within the lighter gold color appears to be a far later addition to the mosaic.
To me, it looks like the original artist depicted baptism as we perform it in the restored Church of Jesus Christ, and at some point in time the Catholic Church decided to adapt the depiction to match Catholic baptisms.
VI. The Snake Crushed Underfoot
This image is a popular motif from the time period representing Christ's victory over the beasts, or over Satan. More particularly, this image reminds us of the promise that Christ will have power to crush the head of the serpent (Genesis 3:15).
This language might be familiar to some Latter-day Saints.
VII. The Marriage Procession
Andrea Woodmansee has been doing some fantastic research on the connection between temple liturgy and the ancient Israelite temple procession. She suggests that we should understand the temple experience as a wedding ritual between the Lord and His covenant people.
As I explored the Basilica of Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, I couldn't help but feel that a marriage procession was precisely what I was looking at.
On the walls above the nave of the basilica, two lines of figures run from the back of the church all the way to the altar. On the left, the figures are all women, and they end at the image of Mary with baby Jesus (before this we also see the offerings of the three wise men). On the right, the figures are all men, and they lead to Christ on His throne.
Note that I'm not suggesting that the intent of the artist was to depict a marriage ceremony between Christ and His mother. I'm simply pointing out the ritual similarities between what is being depicted here and a royal marriage procession.
Women and men separate left and right in the sacred space.
It's also interesting to note that each member of the procession, dressed in robes (with marks in the robes), is also carrying a crown. The women are veiled. To me, this feels an awful lot like potential kings and queens in procession to honor the Lord, the Church's bridegroom.
A similar image is found in the Basilica of San Vitale, where the emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora are depicted on opposite walls, flanked by their royal entourage. Justinian and Theodora feature prominently in the artwork of the Byzantine world.
It seems important that this king and queen, depicted artistically in equal terms, are so prominent in the basilica. They are found on opposite sides of a central image of Christ.
VIII. The Word of God
Books and scrolls feature very prominently in Ravenna. Many Bible authors are shown carrying their writings.
Of course, the words of God in the scriptures are important to all Christians. But for Latter-day Saints, the scriptures also feature prominently in temple ceremonies. We revere the word of God as sacred and essential in our spiritual journey of ascension.
If rituals are being depicted in these mosaics, then the writings of the prophets seem to play an important function in those rituals.
IX. The Veil
I have to credit @_154831 on X for sending over the following image of the veil, which I failed to find on my visit. Of course the veil was hugely important in the ancient temple, as it is in modern temples. That the veil is present in Ravenna further strengthens the temple connection in the artwork. Note also the hands that are seeming to appear from behind the veil.
X. The Lamb
The lamb is one of early Christianity’s favorite symbols. It is of course representative of Jesus Christ, the Lamb of God. Christ is at the center of our temple worship, just as He is at the center of Ravenna's artwork, either in His human form or in His many symbols, such as the lamb.
Jesus Christ is the sacrificial lamb, offered up by priests in the ancient temple as an atonement for the sins of the people of Israel. That connection between the ancient temple and Christ's atoning sacrifice is key in Latter-day Saint theology and temple worship. We see the two as inextricably linked.
I understand that my theories and connections may appear to stretch what can be found in Ravenna. But I believe that considered altogether, the evidence points to a remarkable similarity between the ancient world and our modern temples.
I believe that the closer we get to the time of Christ's life and ministry, the more evidence we find for a connection between the Restoration of the Gospel and early Christian ritual and worship.
Ravenna is a remarkable treasury of symbols, themes, and ceremonies that were at one time central to Christian worship. Though forgotten over time, these symbols were preserved in an ancient artistic tradition.
Those of us with eyes to see and ears to hear will doubtless see the thread of the holy temple link us in the latter days to these ancient generations.
The course of the Lord is one eternal round.
Additional Reading and Sources